Past research suggested that when individuals feel that it is their free choice to perform a task, they are more likely to succeed. However, little has been known about the effect of perceived choice of self-control and the psychological processes underlying the benefits of this perception in everyday contexts. To fill this gap, a 7-day experience sampling study was conducted to test whether confidence in sustaining the current self-control activity and perceived value of current self-control could mediate the link between (...) perceived choice and success in the current self-control activity. The results of multilevel analysis suggested that the perceived choice can boost self-control success by increasing expectancy and value of self-control. These findings add mechanistic understanding of the effect of perceived choice on self-control success. (shrink)

Dalam pembacaan saya, karya yang sedang saya timang-timang ini tidak berlebihan jika diberi tajuk, “Belajar Mencipta Refleksi Ilmiah Teologis dari Joas Adiprasetya.” Oleh karena itu, pada tempat pertama, kepada Joas Adiprasetya saya menyampaikan proficiat atas dipublikasikannya hasil studi yang memahkotai ikhtiar menimba ilmu di School of Theology, Boston University, Massachusetts (USA), pada 2009 yang lalu. Studi formal Joas Adiprasetya bukan hanya sekedar selesai asal selesai, melainkan dengan kualifikasi maxima cum laude. Hal ini dapat ditilik dan dibuktikan dengan opus magnum yang (...) sedang kita bicarakan hic et nunc. Bagaimana tidak? Karya ini mengangkat ke permukaan dua tema besar, yang kemudian dijadikan fokus kajian dan perhatiannya. Kedua tema itu berkenaan dengan Trinitas dan Teologi Agama-Agama. Di satu pihak, mengulas Trinitas tak ubahnya bagaikan mengawali perjalanan dalam kegelapan dan mengakhirinya dalam kegelapan. Pembicaraan tentang Trinitas mengesankan tidak semakin memperjelas pemahaman pembicara tentang Trinitas, apalagi memperjelas Trinitas pada dirinya sendiri. Trinitas tetap Trinitas. Titik. Ia tetap misteri. Di lain pihak, manusia yang percaya telah (sedang dan akan) mengalami siapakah Trinitas dalam peri hidupnya. Jadi, ada semacam lubang yang memungkinkan manusia dalam keterbatasannya scapato via (lepas, melejit, melarikan diri) mencapai gugus tertinggi dalam puncak-puncak sekelebatan sinar yang barang kali imaginatif. Akan tetapi kedua “kebenaran” itu sah. Artinya, dapat diverifikasikan dan dapat pula dipertanggungjawabkan secara ilmiah. Oleh karena itu, sangat besar kekeliruan UU No. 12 Tahun 2012 tentang Pendidikan Tinggi yang membuat kategorisasi baru, yang sangat bertentangan dengan akal sehat dan kebiasaan ilmiah, yakni memasukkan (ilmu) Teologi dalam rumpun ilmu Agama. Namun, apa mau dikata, para pengambil kebijakan di negeri ini akhir-akhir ini seakan tidak pernah belajar dari ilmu, kecuali bagaimana mengakali agar kepentingan kelompok diakomodasi dengan imbalan uang. Justru, studi dan karya Joas Adiprasetya ini, di mata saya, dapat memperlihatkan kekeliruan dan kerancuan berpikir para anggota parlemen sekaligus Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia. Coba simak saja kajian Joas Adiprasetya dan lihat sendiri bagaimana tema teologis ini tidak bersangkut paut dengan “rumpun ilmu agama,” sebab studi ini bersifat keilmuan, “metapraksis” yang melampaui premis-premis agama sebagai suatu lembaga, yang tentu saja telah dibuktikan di Indonesia dapat dipolitisasi. Dalam studi Joas Adiprasetya ini, tak terbilang jumlah tokoh besar (dalam sejarah doktrin Kristen) yang mengulas, merefleksikan, meneliti, serta menulis dengan ketelitian yang mengagumkan dan ketajaman yang memukau, akan tetapi pada akhirnya sama gelapnya, dan yang lebih menakjubkan adalah jumlah orang percaya dan oleh karena itu mengalami tidak berkurang, bahkan sebaliknya. Itulah sebabnya Anselmus Canterburry menyatakan Credo ut intelligam; artinya, saya percaya supaya dengan itulah saya memahami............ Joas Adiprasetya pun, dalam bidikan saya, menyenggol paradigma teologi tentang agama-agama di bawah istilah eksklusivisme, inklusivisme, and pluralisme. Seiring dengan perkembangan waktu, yang memperlihatkan bahwa teologi pun menganut asas semper reformanda et reformata sicut signum temporis (senantiasa membarui dan diperbarui seturut tanda zaman), maka dipopulerkan era pasca pluralisme. Dengan terminologi pasca pluralisme, sejumlah peristilahan yang pernah dikecam seperti sinkretisme, kafir (baca: bukan kita), murtad, proselitisme, dan lain sebagainya perlu ditinjau kembali. Di sini, Joas Adiprasetya melihat tersedianya lahan untuk berdialog, juga tentang Trinitas. Tentu hal ini merupakan tantangan tersendiri jika “minoritas”—seperti Joas Adiprasetya—menawarkan kepada publik sebuah keterkaitan “niscaya” antara teologi tentang Trinitas dengan teologi tentang agama-agama. Ternyata Joas Adiprasetya yang kreatif berhasil menyingkapkan kata kunci yang dapat berlaku umum, yaitu sosial untuk kemudian masuk dalam the great design, yakni misteri perichoresis. Tidak tanggung-tanggung, Joas Adiprasetya menyihir para pembaca dengan ungkapan magis yang diturunkan dari Leonardo Boff, “The holy Trinity is our social program” (Nicolas Federov dikutip oleh Boff dalam “Trinity” dalam Systematic Theology: Perspectives from Liberation Theology, hlm. 78). Meski demikian, hal itu tidak berarti Saudara Joas Adiprasetya sedang tidak menyimpan bom waktu, sebab relasi sosial yang diterapkan dalam signifikansi perichoresis dapat melahirkan suatu cara pandang yang menyamakan saja antara Sang Alpha dan Omega dengan makhluk ciptaan; dan hal ini salah satu butir notasi tentang Teologi Pembebasan, yang sepenuhnya didukung oleh Leonardo Boff. Sekali lagi, dengan memanfaatkan senjata pamungkas dari para teolog kenamaan tersebut (Raimundo Panikkar, Gavin D’Costa, Mark Heim, yang masing-masing menggunakan person-, nature-, reality-perichoresis), Joas Adiprasetya berhasil mengeksplorasi dan menemukan seberkas cahaya terang, yang ternyata sejalan dengan penemuan Richard Kearney (Allah yang mungkin ada) dan Jürgen Moltmann (Trinitas terbuka). Sampai di sini, Joas Adiprasetya dapat menawarkan temuannya sebagai suatu bentuk teologi Indonesia! Akhirnya, karya ini tidak sesederhana, tidak sesingkat Daftar Isi (hlm. vii), sebab penelusuran Joas Adiprasetya mengalir sampai jauh, sampai saling merasuki pribadi-pribadi tanpa melebur menjadi satu, tanpa menghilangkan identitas, justru karena prinsip perichoretik itu bersatu tanpa saling meniadakan. Karya Ketua Sekolah Tinggi Teologia Jakarta ini merupakan salah satu model unggul berteologi dalam konteks dan ranah multipluralisme, yang diakui dan dipuji di Indonesia, namun tidak banyak dipraktikkan. (A. Eddy Kristiyanto, Program Studi Teologi, Sekolah Tinggi Filsafat Driyarkara, Jakarta). (shrink)

The frame problem was originally a problem for Artificial Intelligence, but philosophers have interpreted it as an epistemological problem for human cognition. As a result of this reinterpretation, however, specifying the frame problem has become a difficult task. To get a better idea of what the frame problem is, how it gives rise to more general problems of relevance, and how deep these problems run, I expound six guises of the frame problem. I then assess some proposed heuristic solutions to (...) the frame problem; I show that these proposals misunderstand, and fail to address, an important aspect of the frame problem. Finally, I argue that though human cognition does not solve the frame problem in its epistemological guise, human cognition avoids some of the epistemological worries. (shrink)

The present study takes Confucian entrepreneurs as an entry point to portray the dynamics and problems involved in the process of putting moral precepts into practice, a central issue in business ethics. Confucian entrepreneurs are defined as the owners of manufacturing or business firms who harbor the moral values of Confucianism. Other than a brief account of their historical background, 41 subjects from various parts of Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur were selected for in-depth interviews. By (...) studying the moral choices they made in the market, it was discovered that, contrary to the prevalent mode of inquiry in economics either to reduce all social phenomena to rational calculations or to consider moral actions in terms of utilitarian values, their economic action cannot be accounted for by the postulate of utility maximization, and that the efforts to do business according to their moral principles can be very costly. The study also attempts to document how these Confucian entrepreneurs reconciled the conflict between the moral values they cherished and the instrumental goals they pursued, and will seek to uncover how they responded when faced with this dilemma. (shrink)

1. Wŏnjŏn Chosŏn Yuhaksa -- 2. Chosŏn Yuhaksa -- 3. Chosŏn sasangsa -- 4. Sasang pʻyŏn -- 5. Munhak pʻyŏn.

The present study takes Confucian entrepreneurs as an entry point to portray the dynamics and problems involved in the process of putting moral precepts into practice, a central issue in business ethics. Confucian entrepreneurs are defined as the owners of manufacturing or business firms who harbor the moral values of Confucianism. Other than a brief account of their historical background, 41 subjects from various parts of Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur were selected for in-depth interviews. By (...) studying the moral choices they made in the market, it was discovered that, contrary to the prevalent mode of inquiry in economics either to reduce all social phenomena to rational calculations or to consider moral actions in terms of utilitarian values, their economic action cannot be accounted for by the postulate of utility maximization, and that the efforts to do business according to their moral principles can be very costly. The study also attempts to document how these Confucian entrepreneurs reconciled the conflict between the moral values they cherished and the instrumental goals they pursued, and will seek to uncover how they responded when faced with this dilemma. (shrink)

This pathbreaking work argues that the major intellectual trend in China from the seventeenth through to the early nineteenth century was Confucian ritualism, as expressed in ethics and classical learning. Through the performance of rites, the early Qing scholars believed they could cultivate Confucian virtues and achieve social order. The author shows how Confucian ritualism, with its emphasis on lineage, became a broad movement of social reform that stressed conformity and clearly prescribed rules of behavior, expressed notably in the growing (...) cult of female chastity. (shrink)

This essay interweaves pedagogy, reflection, and critical synthesis to evaluate an assignment employed in the upper-division seminar, “Race and Gender in the Eighteenth Century”: The Meme Museum. The Meme Museum harnesses social media reaction with the goal of orienting students’ responses and readings to eighteenth-century literature. The Meme Museum also ineluctably reproduces “digital blackface” in that students, who attend a Predominately White Institution, rely on Black celebrities and athletes to express their reactive emotions and affects towards the assigned readings. This (...) essay offers the term “reactive blackness” as a communicative media language and affective comportment that emerges directly from an eighteenth-century archive and admits the intersections of race and gender into its fold. Reactive blackness exploits blackened emotionality and reifies the Black experience as an icon of expressivity. The essay thus interrogates artifacts from the student-generated Meme Museum to consider the transhistorical analyses that such an assignment might avail in the anti-racist teaching of race and gender in the eighteenth century. (shrink)

The paper studies the nature of understanding in condensed matter physics (CMP), mediated by the successful employment of its models. I first consider two obvious candidates for the criteria of model-based understanding, Van Fraassen's sense of empirical adequacy and Hacking's instrumental utility , and conclude that both are unsatisfactory. Inspired by Hasok Chang's recent proposal to reformulate realism as the pursuit of ontological plausibility in our system of knowledge, we may require the model under consideration to be understood (or intelligible) (...) before claiming model-based understanding. Here the understanding of a model typically consists of the following: figuring out at least one plausible (preferably realistic) physical mechanism for the model, determining the theoretical consequences of the model by mathematically probing it and developing our physical intuitions about the model. I consider the q-state Potts model to illustrate. After having understood a model, we may employ the model to understand its target phenomena in the world. This is done by matching one of the interpretative models of the model with the central features of the phenomena. The matching should be motivated (ideally both theoretically and empirically) in the sense that we have good reason to believe that the central features of the phenomena can be thought of as having more or less the same structure as postulated by the interpretative model. In conclusion, I propose a two-stage account of model-based understanding in CMP: (1) understanding of a model and (2) matching a target phenomenon with a well-motivated interpretative model of the model. Empirical success and instrumental utility both play their roles in the evaluation of how successful the model is, but are not the essential part of model-based understanding. (shrink)

Although disoriented young children reorient themselves in relation to the shape of the surrounding surface layout, cognitive accounts of this ability vary. The present paper tests three theories of reorientation: a snapshot theory based on visual image-matching computations, an adaptive combination theory proposing that diverse environmental cues to orientation are weighted according to their experienced reliability, and a modular theory centering on encapsulated computations of the shape of the extended surface layout. Seven experiments test these theories by manipulating four properties (...) of objects placed within a cylindrical space: their size, motion, dimensionality, and distance from the space’s borders. Their findings support the modular theory and suggest that disoriented search behavior centers on two processes: a reorientation process based on the geometry of the 3D surface layout, and a beacon-guidance process based on the local features of objects and surface markings. Ó 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. (shrink)

Disoriented animals from ants to humans reorient in accord with the shape of the surrounding surface layout: a behavioral pattern long taken as evidence for sensitivity to layout geometry. Recent computational models suggest, however, that the reorientation process may not depend on geometrical analyses but instead on the matching of brightness contours in 2D images of the environment. Here we test this suggestion by investigating young children's reorientation in enclosed environments. Children reoriented by extremely subtle geometric properties of the 3D (...) layout: bumps and ridges that protruded only slightly off the floor, producing edges with low contrast. Moreover, children failed to reorient by prominent brightness contours in continuous layouts with no distinctive 3D structure. The findings provide evidence that geometric layout representations support children's reorientation. (shrink)

Wilkinson and Savulescu did not agree with the court's decision to continue M's treatment and suggested in their recent commentary that the magnitude of benefits of being alive for M is small compared with the potential use of health resources for other patients. We argue that the benefits of being sensate to the surroundings for an otherwise unconscious person are not necessarily small. One cannot assess on behalf of another person the magnitude of benefits of being alive according to the (...) intensity or the duration of negative experiences. Denying life-sustaining treatment to patients in a minimally conscious state solely on the grounds that they are less capable of enjoying the benefits represents grave discrimination against disabled persons. For patients in a minimally conscious state who have not delegated a surrogate or made any advance decision about their medical treatment, the duty of doctors is to preserve their right to self-determination and maximise their capacity to enjoy their life. M should live on, and life-sustaining treatment should not be withdrawn. (shrink)

This study examines the impact of technology application on student achievement in the state of Georgia. Technology application includes elements such as technology access, technology integration, and teacher technology proficiency. Student achievement refers to students’ standardized test scores in language, social studies, sciences, and mathematics in elementary, middle, and high schools. Results of Multiple Regression analysis yielded significant percentages of variance in student achievement that was attributable to Internet connected computer access. Another purpose of the study was to investigate the (...) equity issues of school technology. School levels and student socioeconomic status were used as independent variables to determine if significant differences in technology application existed among the school levels and the socioeconomic status categories. Results of Analysis of Variance indicated that students of low socioeconomic status had far less opportunities to access Internet connected computers than students of high socioeconomic status. The level of technology application increased as students moved up the school level. (shrink)

Adults without the capacity to make their own medical decisions have their rights protected under the Mental Capacity Act in the UK. The underlying principle of the court's decisions is the best interests test, and the evaluation of best interests is a welfare appraisal. Although the House of Lords in the well-known case of Bland held that the decision to withhold treatment for patients in a persistent vegetative state should not be based on their best interests, judges in recent cases (...) have still held that the best interests of persistently vegetative patients demand that the right to die with dignity prevails over society's interest to preserve life. The basis of suggesting that it is in the best interests for one who is alive in peace to die in peace is weak. Even if it may not be in their best interests to live on, it may not be so to die either. The phrase ‘the right to dignity/to die with dignity’ has been misused as a trump card to justify the speculation that a vegetative patient would necessarily refuse to live on machines. Without disrespect to the court's decision, we argue that the use of the best interests test to authorise withdrawing/withholding treatment from persistently vegetative patients without an advance directive is problematic. We propose that the court could have reached the same decision by considering only the futility of treatment without working through the controversial best interests of the patient. (shrink)

The rhetoric-analytic critique of experimental psychology owes its apparent attractiveness to (a) some erroneous ideas about cognitive psychology and the rationale of experimentation, (b) the failure to distinguish between prior data and evidential data vis-à-vis the to-be-corroborated explanatory theory, and (c) evidential data owes their identity to a theory that is independent of the theory being tested. Theories in cognitive psychology are accepted because they can withstand concerted efforts to falsify them.

That Haig and Sohn find the hypothetico-deductive approach wanting in different ways shows that multiple conditional syllogisms are being used in different stages of theory corroboration in the Popperian approach. The issues raised in the two commentaries assume a different complexion when certain distinctions are made.

Judges and jurors must make decisions in an environment of ignoranceand uncertainty for example by hearing statements of possibly unreliable ordishonest witnesses, assessing possibly doubtful or irrelevantevidence, and enduring attempts by the opponents to manipulate thejudge''s and the jurors'' perceptions and feelings. Three importantaspects of decision making in this environment are the quantificationof sufficient proof, the weighing of pieces of evidence, and therelevancy of evidence. This paper proposes a mathematical frameworkfor dealing with the two first aspects, namely the quantification ofproof (...) and weighing of evidence. Our approach is based on subjectivelogic, which is an extension of standard logic and probability theory,in which the notion of probability is extended by including degrees ofuncertainty. Subjective Logic is a framework for modelling humanreasoning and we show how it can be applied to legalreasoning. (shrink)

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1995.

1. Kyoyuk iran muŏt in'ga -- 2. Kyoyuk ponwi ui sam -- 3. Kyoyuk yŏn'gu ŭi sae chip'yŏng.

Lawrence Sklar in his book, Physics and Chance (1993), proposes a sophisticated account of reduction of thermodynamics (TD) by statistical mechanics (SM). I argue that Sklar's analysis of the alleged reduction of TD by SM is problematic in several respects. I consider a few counterexamples to show that none of what Sklar takes to be the central features of successful reduction in science (unification and identification) holds in the case of TD and SM. I suggest the broader conclusion that a (...) more useful way of understanding the relationship between TD and SM is as collaboration and competition among alternative methodologies rather than reduction of one theory to another. (shrink)

A survey of contemporary philosophical and scientific literatures reveals that different authors employ the term ‘heuristic’ in ways that deviate from, and are sometimes inconsistent with, one another. Given its widespread use in philosophy and cognitive science generally, it is striking that there appears to be little concern for a clear account of what phenomena heuristics pick out or refer to. In response, I consider several accounts of ‘heuristic’, and I draw a number of distinctions between different sorts of heuristics (...) in order to make sense of various research programmes. I then develop a working characterization of ‘heuristic’ which is shown to be coherent and robust enough to serve as a kind within philosophy and cognitive science broadly. My intent is not to pursue a unified account of ‘heuristic’, but to highlight some features of certain kinds of heuristics that are important for theorizing about cognition in order to proceed with a science of the mind/brain. 1 Why We Need an Appropriate Characterization of ‘Heuristic’2 Inadequate Definitions2.1 A positive attempt2.2 Heuristics versus guaranteed correct outcomes3 A Taxonomy of Heuristics3.1 Stimulus-driven versus heuristic3.2 Perceptual versus cognitive heuristics3.3 Computational versus cognitive heuristics3.4 Methodological versus inferential heuristics3.5 Summary of distinctions4 Characterizing Cognitive Heuristics4.1 Heuristics as rules of thumb4.2 Beyond rules of thumb: exploiting information5 Concluding Remarks. (shrink)